The Adventures of Ibn Battuta: a Muslim Traveler of the Fourteenth Century

â€Å"The Adventures of Ibn Battuta: A Muslim Traveler of the Fourteenth Century† Translation: Ross E. Dunn Ibn Batutta was a self-proclaimed scholar of the fourteenth century who traveled extensively throughout sub-Saharan Africa under the banner of Islam, and wrote of his travels in an autobiographical book entitled ‘The Travels of Ibn Battuta’. The financing for his ventures was derived from Muslim rulers inhabiting the cities he visited. His text regarding the cities and their occupants provide great insight into the cultural diversity and economic conditions of medieval Africa, Middle East and Asia.Ibn Battuta also exposes intricate details of daily life regarding food, clothing and rituals. His journals relay a precarious existence where food is not always palatable; clothing is optional and indigenous rituals conflict with his own beliefs. Religious studies students may question the need for this intricate detail; however, Ibn Battuta was gathering the cruc ial knowledge to help other Muslims make the journey. His observances also allowed community leaders to learn of the actions of other community leaders.Among his many observations Ibn Battuta describes the terrain where he travels and the manner in which each community receives him. On many occasions, particularly when crossing the desert, advance notice was sent to make provisions for his lodging. This advanced notice also served a vital task, to arrange for a group of people to meet the traveling party several days outside of town with the necessary supplies to complete the journey. The text discloses unfortunate events where couriers were lost, resulting in the death of entire parties because additional supplies were never sent to meet them.Recording this type of information would be an invaluable resource for other Muslims who desire to go on a pilgrimage. The Travels also discuss the danger of storms at sea and seasonal conditions that limited the availability of this mode of t ransportation. The rigorous and perilous nature of distant travel is emphasized in the text and endured often by Ibn Battuta throughout his life. Although he expresses a modicum of regret at his abstinence from a stationary life, his descriptions of events and beautiful places belie his propensity for wanderlust.This seems a rather unexpected attitude for a religious scholar caught in the midst of desert travel. But from the standpoint of the reader, beauty serves as reward for the hardships endured on the journey. Several other passages in the text divulge the author’s valuation of nature and beauty. The Ibn Battuta reflects an almost pantheistic attitude that is simultaneously appreciative and respectful of both the desert and cultivated gardens. It is likely that this expressed reverence toward nature was intended as an enticement or encouragement his audience to travel.Interestingly enough Battuta also expresses knowledge about Plato Although Ibn Battuta seems to be conte nt with all facets of nature, and speaks highly of the morals and purity of many men, discord appears when his beliefs are challenged by the perception of unconventional behavior, such as the wood burning ceremony in Om Obida, Persi, or the burning of widows in Hindustan, â€Å"The woman adorns herself, and is accompanied by cavalcade of the Infidel Hindoos and Brahmans, with drums, trumpets and men following her, both Infidel and Muslim alike† (emphasis mine) He also remarks about his shock regarding the public nudity of women.This is another example of direct contrast with his cultural heritage, which dictates that women are kept completely covered with the exception of their eyes. This reaction comes as no surprise because sexual infidelity, on behalf of women, is contrary to Ibn Battuta’s religious beliefs. As an ulama, Ibn Battuta’s Muslim beliefs were far more conservative than many of the cultures he visited. The text of Ibn Battuta stands as a relevant w ork from and autobiographical standpoint, as well as a study of regional cultural diversity among Islamic communities.It can be said that Ibn Battuta functioned as a type of intelligentsia for the medival Muslim communities, spreading information between the many towns he visited. His journal entries could easily have influenced the attitudes of community leaders by allowing a direct comparison with the practices and habits of other rulers. Through this methodology, Battuta garnered a modicum of individual power.Although community leaders did not fear Ibn Battuta, his critique of their habits could cause other communities to question a particular leaders respect of Muslim charity laws. This would also call into question that leaders religious devotion to Muslim tradition. Students of religious studies can use the text to discern historical information about the size and resources of ancient cities, trade relationships/predominant commodities of value, and similarities and difference s in the cultures of the Fourteenth Century Islamicate.We are also given an idea of the prosperity of cities despite any possible bias the author might have held toward particular regions or rulers. Closer examination reveals, for the most part, Muslim reverence for travelers on pilgrimage and particularly those of the Ulama class. Perhaps most importantly, the author relays information about daily Muslim life in the medieval age that is not readily available from other academic sources.

Living Facades Can Be Grown Environmental Sciences Essay

The existent construction of populating frontages varies between providers, with a battalion of different patented systems out at that place. However, there are three chief structural systems that most living frontages will adhere to, each with their ain advantages and disadvantages. Modular Panel System Panels of pre-planted flora are fitted on to a support system that provides construction and a mechanical lacrimation system. Pre-planting means that an instant green consequence can be achieved upon completion. Composition of the faculties will change depending on the demands of the flora, but will necessitate to incorporate foods and stuff for the roots to keep. Soil can be used, but due to its weight it can merely realistically be of usage for little graduated table walls. ( see figure 1 ) Man-made Felt Pioneered by Patrick Blanc, this system uses man-made felt as a base for the flora, with H2O and foods provided automatically. A metal frame is used for the construction, with a 10mm PVC bed riveted to it and the felt stapled to this. The metal frame allows the construction to be attached to a frontage leting an air spread between the two beds which prevents flora from impacting the edifice structurally while helping the thermal and acoustic belongingss of the frontage. The PVC bed prevents wet get awaying and provides rigidness to the full construction. The polymeric amide felt layer consists of two overlapping sheets with assorted pockets that secure the workss. The pick of stuff is determined by its opposition to decompose and a high capillary action leting H2O and foods to be distributed good. This frontage has the benefit of merely weighing 30kg per meter squared. ( see figure 1 ) Container and Trellis A series of containers house the workss with trellis mediate, leting the flora to mount and make an uninterrupted face of flora. Water and foods can once more provided automatically with either a man-made or dirt based turning medium. ( see figure 1 ) ( Figure 1. Different Populating Facade Structures, 2008 ) Positive Effectss The bulk of the positive effects of life frontages are environmental, although aesthetic, societal and economic benefits can besides be identified. Air Quality It has long been recognised that indoor workss can assist better the air quality in offices and an internal life wall can supply a similar consequence and assist rejuvenate ‘sick ‘ edifices. The workss absorb C dioxide and other particulates sublimating the air. The external air quality can besides be improved by a life frontage as it is able to absorb the C dioxide and pollutants from traffic. It has been shown that a life frontage can hold a major impact on the degrees of Nitrogen Dioxide ( NO2 ) and particulate affair ( PM ) in urban countries in which there are street canons ( tallness of edifices exceeds distance between them ) . The street canons cause the air to twirl and purl around the flora enabling increased degrees of atoms to be absorbed. A survey carried out by Lancaster University found a decrease in street flat concentrations of up to 40 % for NO2 and 60 % for particulate affair. With NO2 and particulate affair doing up a big measure of air pollutants, a decrease in concentrations of this magnitude would hold a positive consequence on air pollution in urban countries. Thermal Performance The thermic effects of life frontages are really similar to those of green roofs. Internet Explorer, decrease in surface temperatures due to shadowing from flora, evapotranspiration and increased thermic mass can take to: a ice chest internal clime a decrease in urban heat island consequence However, surveies have shown that populating frontages may be more effectual than green roofs in these countries. Building Performance The surface temperatures and hence the internal temperature of edifices can be affected in many ways by the presence of life walls and flora: The flora shades the solid wall behind it, forestalling solar additions. Vegetation absorbs radiation hence cut downing contemplation. The increased thermic mass of the flora and infrastructure reduces flow of temperature through the edifice tegument: ice chest inside in summer and heater in winter. Transpiration: the consequence of H2O loss from flora by vaporization. Heat is carried off in the signifier of H2O vapor. Protection from cold air currents A 2010 survey by the National University of Singapore found that the surface temperature of life walls was significantly reduced compared to a concrete control wall, with decreases of 6 to 10 grades recorded. Analysis of the consequences concluded that shadowing and transpiration seemed to be the chief subscribers to this lessening. In another survey at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, decreases in both external and internal wall temperatures were found when a concrete wall was clad with vegetated facing. Urban Heat Islands An Urban Heat Island is the localized addition of temperature in urban Centres as opposed to environing rural countries due to a profuseness of heat retaining surfaces. It is thought that the decrease in surface temperatures due to populating frontages could assist cut down the temperatures in urban countries. A computing machine theoretical account based analysis at the University of Cardiff found a important decrease of the temperature in urban canons when the edifice envelopes are to the full ‘greened ‘ . A similar decision was reached in a survey by the University of Manchester, who found that an addition in green screen of 10 % in urban countries could take to a decrease in maximal temperatures. Biodiversity It is thought that populating frontages may lend to an addition in biodiversity in urban countries by supplying a home ground for insects and birds. Although specific proving on the biodiversity of life frontages has non yet been exhaustively undertaken, there are illustrations of wildlife such as birds utilizing populating walls as their place. Any study would hold to admit the possible disadvantages of increased biodiversity on a edifices frontage. Acoustic Control Vegetation is widely used to cut down the noise degrees from busy roads or railroad lines and it is thought that populating walls may be used to command the acoustics of edifices. A survey at the National University of Singapore found that life walls had a higher sound soaking up coefficient than many regular edifice stuffs and that the noise decrease was besides important. However, the survey pointed out that these consequences varied greatly depending on the frequences used, types of works, per centum screen of wall and type of substrate. Further proving on existent edifices is needed to set up the true acoustic virtues of life frontages. Aestheticss Bing in consequence a perpendicular garden, the aesthetic qualities of a life frontage are obvious and there are many illustrations where the primary aim is aesthetic consequence. Some of the ocular benefits include: Rejuveinating bland frontages Softening of the urban landscape and leting edifices to look more ‘natural ‘ Changing aesthetics with season Light: softening and diffusion of visible radiation can heighten infinites ( when used in concurrence with glazing ) . Social The effects of flora in urban countries on well-being are good documented and surveies have found that people view verdure as really of import in these countries. Economic Although full cost analysis is yet to be done for a edifice with a life frontage, it is possible that populating frontages could hold a good economic impact on edifices. The countries these benefits could be found are: cut downing warming and air-conditioning costs added commercial value to the edifice increased productiveness Negative Aspects Lack of surveies and research into populating frontages means that the true benefits and negatives are yet to be discerned. Of the few surveies available, most are either computing machine theoretical accounts or proving is carried out in controlled environments. To genuinely understand the effects of life frontages, proving demands to be carried out long term on edifices. However, since the construct of life frontages is reasonably new, there is presently really small informations available and most living frontages are still reasonably immature. Populating walls can necessitate a high degree of care depending on the system chosen, and at that place have been documented jobs with: Root putrefaction Plants deceasing Need for paring Future/Incorporation with Sustainability There are many other countries of sustainability that populating walls have the possible to be integrated with. These thoughts are still at the experimental phase, but could practicably work: Integration with air purification and airing eg Queens University Biowall Vertical agriculture/farming: veggies or fruit could be grown on life walls and so harvested, increasing the surface countries available for agribusiness. Water re-use: since life walls rely on automatically supplied H2O, there is the chance to utilize rain H2O or gray H2O as this supply. The systems can be attached to a H2O butt. Code for Sustainable Homes and BREEAM Planing governments can see developments of populating walls as positive and they may even number towards local be aftering marks. Due to populating facade engineering being rather new, at present there are no specific mentions in the sustainable codification or BREEAM. However, populating walls may be able to lend towards other countries of the codification, assisting to gain credits. Sustainability Code/BREEAM: Combined with a rainwater crop armored combat vehicle – Wat /W01 Native species planted – Eco 2 ( ecological sweetening ) /LE05 If important country of belongings covered – Eco 4 ( alteration of eco value ) Possible betterment of thermic public presentation – Ene1 ( Brooding Emission Rate ) /E1

Indian Democracy at Crossroad

Avinash Shankar MAD12015 Politics Essay: 2 Topic Can post-colonial India's political experience be characterized as moving towards becoming more democratic Democracy, the form of government where supreme power is directly or indirectly vested in people, has become a global discourse that can be gauged from the fact that many post-colonial countries have adopted it with remarkable success.The dramatic global expansion of democracy in the last few decades in post-colonial countries speak volume of this most popular form of representative government. The ever fluctuating political dynamics coupled with changing socio-economic patterns since Independence has given new meanings to Indian democracy at each stage of its progression. India inherited a colonial state and kept much of its functioning architecture intact. Much of state practice, despite its massive quantitative expansion, is heavily governed by legislation passed somewhere between 1860 and 1947.During the 65-years of long journ ey, India as a nation has witnessed moments wherein democracy looked to find its true meaning, while moments like national emergency during Indira Gandhi’s regime qualify as the abysmal low that India touched as democratic nation. Adoption of socialist pattern, the middle path between capitalism and communism, at the early stage of our independence and a series of economic reforms that began in 1980s were primarily targeted at delivering the true essence of democracy in social, economic, and political spheres.This paper is an attempt to answer how Abraham Lincoln’s notion of democracy as a government of the people, by the people and for the people has been put to test in India on different social, political, and economic parameters at different stages of its progression since independence and whether ever changing political, social and economic dynamics have brought India closer to true democratic model. India retained a deep commitment to principles of parliamentary g overnment during the three decades after independence. Indian leaders described their approach planning nder a democratic pattern of socialism as a new model for Asian and African development. India’s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru who set the direction of India’s development during the first fifteen years of freedom, pointed to his country as an area of agreement between opposing ideologies of capitalism on the hand and the communism on the other. Under his leadership, the commitment to democratic social transformation was an integral part of India’s development strategy. Nehru also tried to incorporate Gandhian ideals of social reforms in his development programs.Nehru spoke of this mode of development as a third way which takes best from all existing systems—the Russian, the American, and sought to create something suited to one’s own history and philosophy. In the nascent stage of Independence, the Nehruvian socialist model of developmen t seemed to have worked well within the social and economic framework of India. But Nehru too had to face many challenges in the implementation of his development model. Nehru’s attempt to bring serious bourgeois land reforms was thwarted through a combination of feudal resistance, judicial conservatism, and connivance of state Congress leaderships.Although Congress was content to accept the continuance of semi-feudal rural power, it adopted massive plans for capitalist movement. Consistent with this general objective, the ruling elite adopted a plan for heavy industrialization and institutional control of capital goods industries through the state sector, a largely untried experiment at the time in the underdeveloped countries. Indira Gandhi who became Prime Minister after Nehru’s demise gave a new populist dimension to Indian politics.The shift of the Congress to populist politics quickly set up a new structure of political communication in which Indira could directl y appeal to electorates. While populist endeavors like Garibi Hatao (remove poverty) and nationalization of banks brought her good name, she has often been criticized for changing the Congress into a highly centralized and undemocratic party organization, from the earlier federal, democratic, and ideological formation that Nehru had led. Indira’s regime, in my opinion, was the beginning of the stage when India started to show its meaningful presence internationally.Creation of Bangladesh was the beginning of the India’s assertiveness at international level. Nuclear test conducted in 1974 was the extension of this assertiveness. Ironically Indira’s regime will also go down in history for bringing disrepute to democracy by imposing emergency in the most undemocratic manner. Perhaps it was the first blow to the essence of democratic model that India followed since independence. The manner in which rights and liberties, the two important tenets of democracy, were su spended during emergency reminds us how an authoritarian regime can play havoc in people’s minds.The emergency perhaps was the turning point in the Indian democratic history because it paved the way for major political and social shift. It was perhaps the trigger that led to the end of absolute majority era and ignited the undercurrent of regional politics played largely around caste and religious lines. Easwaran Sridharan and M. V. Rajeev Gowda however believe that the end of Congress’s dominance and fragmentation of the party system have stopped short of undermining the basic power-sharing characteristics of the system and have indeed contributed to democratic consolidation.While the seeds for the decline of one-power dominance were sown during Indira’s regime it became more apparent during Rajiv Gandhi’s tenure as the Prime Minister of India. Some scholars however believe that the decline of one-party dominance and the emergence of a large number of sm aller or regional parties which ensure that state-level elections are vigorously contested have had positive effects on competition. These developments represent political empowerment of historically marginalized groups and reflect favorably on the vibrancy of political entrepreneurship.I feel that mushrooming of small regional parties can also be attributed to effect of anti-defection law enacted during Rajiv’s regime. Emergence of regional parties has also led to political instability due to opportunist attitude shown by these parties time and again. Rajiv attempted to bring party reforms and rebuild Congress as an organized party. He also played a vital role in tackling Punjab problem that assumed alarming proportion during Indira’s regime. Rajiv can also be credited for bringing constitutional status to Panchayati Raj, one of most important tenets of Indian democracy.During Rajiv’s regime too the essence of democracy looked dismantled characterized by high-s cale violence against the Sikh community in the aftermath of Indira’s assassination. Coalition politics gained momentum after Rajiv’s assassination in 1991. Caste and religion became the driver and determinants of Indian politics thereafter. Anti-reservation protest in the aftermath of the implementation of Mandal Commission is the stark reminder of the despair that results when the advocates for meritocracy lose their battle against the saviors of petty caste politics.Hindu nationalist forces too jumped the bandwagon soon and tried to establish their presence in the Indian political arena through much talked about Ram Janmabhumi agenda. We are also witnessing a paradigm shift in the redistributive politics wherein leftist forces are happy with a kind of statism that protects the state sector even if it means stifling the rest of economy. On the other hand the proponents of Mandal fear that rolling back the state on economic reform issues at the moment when Backward Ca stes (BCs) are getting access to its resources would be exercise in bad faith.Of late, globalization and economic reforms have given a new dimension to Indian politics, and for that matter to Indian democracy. Development has become the main political agenda pushing caste and religion gimmicks on the backburner. Political results in two successive elections in Bihar mark the paradigm shift in people’s voting pattern. It shows how voters are trumping the populist agenda in favor of developmental agenda. It augurs well for Indian democracy. The ensuing paragraphs discuss at length achievements, challenges and issues that India faces as democratic nation.Despite the considerable success of the Indian state in holding free and fair elections, sustaining a free press, and dramatically expanding the franschise, the abuse of coercive state power remains one of the major problems. Frequently such power is used arbitrarily against the poor, minorities, and those who dare to challenge the state’s writ. Furthermore, police abuses are more pronounced in poorer states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, where standards of accountability are sorely lacking. The evidence from such states of rampant deaths in police custody underscores the gravity of this ill.India as a democratic nation has underachieved when it comes to protecting human rights. Armed Forces Special Powers Act 1990 was aimed at containing ethno-religious insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir. It allows armed forces to conduct counter-insurgency operations. Under the garb of this act, security forces often resort to extrajudicial killings. The 2002 Prevention of Terrorism Activities Act (POTA), that came into existence in the aftermath of a series of terror acts, was sometimes used against political opponents and also infringed upon the individual rights and civil liberties of Indian citizen.The secular structure of Indian democracy also looked threatened on many occasions. The project of secularism has inc reasingly been under threat as communal ideology and political forces have come to enjoy greater purchase in society and the polity. The demolition of Babri Masjid engineered by Hindu nationalist forces like Bajrang Dal, RSS, and VHP, doesn’t augur well for the secular structure of the country.The Hindu nationalists’ hostility to secularism became evident in a number of different arenas, ranging from a systematic attempt to alter history and socio-science science textbooks to party leaders’ willingness to countenance widespread state-sanctioned violence against Muslims, especially during bloody disturbances that rocked the western state of Gujrat. On the positive side, the growth of a plethora of nongovernmental organizations (NGO) focused on development, along with the growing participation of hitherto quiescent groups, are gradually resulting in a political system that is more accountable to the citizenry.The roles NGOs are playing have the potential to reshap e the much needed developmental path. In times to come, NGOs will play much meaningful role by representing face of common people largely ignored by political entities. However politicization and financial irregularities rampant at these rapidly multiplying NGOs could act as a deterrent to the primary objectives that these nonprofits stand for. At Independence, the imperative for welfare mechanism was obvious due to widespread poverty and lack of food security, specially in the rural areas.Even after sixty five years of Independence, a large percentage of Indian population officially are still subsisting below poverty line and incidents of acute food insecurity continue to occur. Since 1985 Kalahandi has been more or less uninterruptedly suffering from food crisis of alarming dimensions and proportions, officially and disarmingly described as drought, but unofficially, by critics, as famine. The politics of nomenclature apart, Kalahandi has become a metaphor for hunger in several ot her districts in the more backward hill areas of south-western Orissa.The most ugly part of the Kalahandi starvation issue was highlighted by the Baidyanath Mishra Commission Report that attributed starvation deaths in the region to a set of issues including corruption, fraud, misuse, wastefulness, and mismanagement of development. Enhancing food security at the household level is an issue of great importance for developing country like India where millions of poor suffer from lack of purchasing power and malnutrition. Right to food is a part of an overall goal of achieving the right to development.Attainment of self-sufficiency of foodgrains at the national level is one of the big achievements in post-independence period. After remaining a food deficit country for about two decades after independence, India has not only become self-sufficient in foodgrains but now has a surplus of foodgrains. Despite many poverty alleviation programs initiated since the time of Indira Gandhi, pover ty still remains one of the concerns and state and central governments need to look into it. Employment guarantee schemes like NREGA bring some hope even though effective implementation remains largely unaddressed.India has made significant progress in fostering high levels of economic and industrial development. But when it comes to ethnic conflict in India, four sets of causal conditions have usually combined in different ways in different areas to produce conflict and violence. First is the fear of assimilation or cultural dilution and unfulfilled national aspiration. Second is the process of modernization by inducing large-scale migrations and by raising standards of literacy and aspirations.This process of modernization has not only forced ethnic groups to live closely together and to compete for rewards and resources, but has also sharpened their sociopolitical awareness and increased their capacity to mobilize for collective action. The third reason is unequal development, po verty, exploitation, lack of opportunity, and threats to existing group privileges. Finally, political factors such as endemic bad governance, the growth of anti-secular forces, institutional decay, and vote-bank politics have also contributed to large scale ethnic conflicts.The role of mass media has become more important in today’s context. Mass media has played a positive role in highlighting issues of public concern such as corruption, electoral malpractices, and economic instability. Anti-corruption movement launched by social crusader Anna Hazare could become successful due to large scale involvement of mass media. On the flipside politicization and commercialization of mediums of mass media don’t paint rosy picture for the fourth pillar of Indian democracy. Another area where we need to work is the social security for unorganized workers.The social security problems for unorganized workers in India can be divided into two sets of problems. The first is the capab ility deprivation in terms of inadequate employment, low earnings, poor health, and educational status which are related to general deprivation of poorer sections of the population. The second is the adversity in the sense of absence of adequate fall back mechanisms to meet contingencies such as ill health, accident, death, and old age. Central and state governments also need to focus on social sector by ensuring larger allocation for such expenditure.On human development index India is not comfortably placed either. Infant mortality rate remains one of the major issues. The incidence of child labor is among the highest in the world. Women have significantly higher morbidity and mortality rates than men. Though we have made significant inroads in achieving greater literacy, the numbers don’t sound adequate. Human development conditions are particularly egregious in four northern states, Bihar, Rajasthan, UP, and Madhya Pradesh. It becomes apparent that our democratic aspirati ons are only partly realized.Large scale corruption, communalism, electoral malpractices, perverted forms of Muslim and Hindu radicalism, sponsored terrorism, regional separatist insurgencies, corporate-political nexus, apart from many other things, have been obstructing the India’s journey along the path of democracy. Through a series of economic reforms India has made its presence at international stage, but marginalized sections of Indian society are yet to reap substantial benefits from it. Strong political will is needed to put us in the forefront of successful democratic nations.We also need to get rid of the corrupt hierarchy of bureaucratic structure because it acts as a deterrent to the implementation of welfare programs. As the citizen of a democratic nation what hurts me most is the deep rooted corruption, not only because it has become an exercise of power and impunity for many, but also because it has made its locus in the minds of people where it has become stan dardized. We spent enough time passing the bucks as to which apparatus/ apparatuses of our social, economic and political systems has/have failed us as the democratic nation.It is not the time to retrospect what we achieved as a democratic nation in the long journey so far, rather it is introspection time for each actor of democracy including politicians, bureaucrats, and off course the most powerful people. This introspection will surely bring the urgency among actors to realize the accountability they owe to the democratic edifice of India that is standing tall after having weathered challenging times since independence. Spread of education and emergence of political, social, and economic consciousness among citizens give me hope that India will slowly inch closer to aligning herself ith the essence of true democratic values and ideals. I will choose to finish this manuscript on a positive note by going back to the famous quote of Harry Emerson Fosdick †¦ â€Å"Democracy is based upon the conviction that there are extraordinary possibilities in ordinary people. † Bibliography 1. Mehta, P. B. , The Burden of Democracy . Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2003 2. Frankrel, F. R. , India's political economy, 1947-2004:  The Gradual Revolution. London: Oxford University Press, 2005 3. ibid 4. Karanjia, R. K. , Mind of Mr. Nehru,London: Allen & Unwin, 1961 5.Kaviraj, Sudipta, â€Å"A critique of the Passive Revolution,† Economics and Political Weekly 23 (Nov 1988): 2433 6. Chandra, Bipin, Mukherjee, Aditya, Mukherjee, Mridula. India after Independence, Penguin Books, New Delhi, 1999 7. Ganguly, Sumit, Diamond, Larry and Plattner, Marc F. , The State of India’s Democracy , Oxford University Press, 2009 8. Yadav, Yogendra, â€Å"Electoral Politics in the Time of Change: India’s Third Electoral System, 1998-99,† Economics and Political Weekly, August 21-28, 1999 9. Mehta, P. B. , The Burden of Democracy , Penguin Books, New Delhi, 20 03 10.Genteman, Amelia, Killings in Delhi Slum Expose: Unequal Justice for India’s Poor,† International Herald Tribune, January 6, 2007 11. See the National Human Rights Commission Report for 2004-2005, available at www. nhrc. nic. in 12. Jayal, NirajaGopal, ed. , Democracy in India Oxford University Press, New Delhi 13 Ganguly, Sumit â€Å"The Crisis of Indian Secularism,† Journal of Democracy 14, October 2003 14. see Ganguly, Diamond, Plattner 15. see Jayal 16. see Jayal 17. see Jayal 18. Dev, S. Mahendra, Inclusive Growth in India: Agriculture, Poverty, and Developoment Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2011 19. ee Ganguly, Diamond, Plattner 20. See Dev 21. Atul Kohli, ed. , â€Å"The Success of India’s Democracy,† Cambridge University Press, New Delhi, 2011 ——————————————– [ 1 ]. P. B. Mehta, The Burden of Democracy (Penguin Books, New Delh i, 2003), 106-107 [ 2 ]. F. R. Frankel, India's political economy, 1947-2004:  The Gradual Revolution (London: Oxford University Press, 2005), 4 [ 3 ]. F. R. Frankel, India's political economy, 1947-2004:  The Gradual Revolution (London: Oxford University Press, 2005), 25 [ 4 ]. R. K. Karanjia, Mind of Mr. Nehru (London: Allen & Unwin, 1961), 100-101 [ 5 ]. Sudipta kaviraj. A critique of the Passive Revolution,† Economics and Political Weekly 23 (Nov 1988): 2433 [ 6 ]. Bipan Chandra, Aditya Mukherjee, Mridula Mukherjee. India after Independence (Penguin Books, New Delhi, 1999), Chapters 11, 13 [ 7 ]. Sumit Ganguly, Larry Diamond, and Marc F. Plattner, The State of India’s Democracy (Oxford University Press, 2009), xviii-xix [ 8 ]. Yogendra yadav, â€Å"Electoral Politics in the Time of Change: India’s Third Electoral System, 1998-99,† Economics and Political Weekly (August 21-28, 1999): 2393-99 [ 9 ]. P. B. Mehta, The Burden of Democracy (Penguin Books , New Delhi, 2003), 168-169 [ 10 ].Amelia Genteman, Killings in Delhi Slum Expose: Unequal Justice for India’s Poor,† International Herald Tribune (January 6, 2007) [ 11 ]. See the National Human Rights Commission Report for 2004-2005, available at www. nhrc. nic. in [ 12 ]. NirajaGopal Jayal, ed. , Democracy in India (Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 170 [ 13 ]. Sumit Ganguly, â€Å"The Crisis of Indian Secularism,† Journal of Democracy 14 (October 2003): 11-25 [ 14 ]. Sumit Ganguly, Larry Diamond, and Marc F. Plattner, The State of India’s Democracy (Oxford University Press, 2009), xxi-xxii [ 15 ]. Jayal, 198 [ 16 ]. Jayal, 199 [ 17 ].NirajaGopal Jayal, ed. , Democracy in India (Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 200 [ 18 ]. S. Mahendra Dev, Inclusive Growth in India: Agriculture, Poverty, and Developoment (Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 201), 101-103 [ 19 ]. Sumit Ganguly, Larry Diamond, and Marc F. Plattner, The State of India’s Democra cy (Oxford University Press, 2009), 49 [ 20 ]. S. Mahendra Dev, Inclusive Growth in India: Agriculture, Poverty, and Developoment (Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2011), 201-202 [ 21 ]. Atul Kohli, ed. , â€Å"The Success of India’s Democracy (Cambridge University Press, New Delhi, 2011), 211 Indian Democracy at Crossroad Avinash Shankar MAD12015 Politics Essay: 2 Topic Can post-colonial India's political experience be characterized as moving towards becoming more democratic Democracy, the form of government where supreme power is directly or indirectly vested in people, has become a global discourse that can be gauged from the fact that many post-colonial countries have adopted it with remarkable success.The dramatic global expansion of democracy in the last few decades in post-colonial countries speak volume of this most popular form of representative government. The ever fluctuating political dynamics coupled with changing socio-economic patterns since Independence has given new meanings to Indian democracy at each stage of its progression. India inherited a colonial state and kept much of its functioning architecture intact. Much of state practice, despite its massive quantitative expansion, is heavily governed by legislation passed somewhere between 1860 and 1947.During the 65-years of long journ ey, India as a nation has witnessed moments wherein democracy looked to find its true meaning, while moments like national emergency during Indira Gandhi’s regime qualify as the abysmal low that India touched as democratic nation. Adoption of socialist pattern, the middle path between capitalism and communism, at the early stage of our independence and a series of economic reforms that began in 1980s were primarily targeted at delivering the true essence of democracy in social, economic, and political spheres.This paper is an attempt to answer how Abraham Lincoln’s notion of democracy as a government of the people, by the people and for the people has been put to test in India on different social, political, and economic parameters at different stages of its progression since independence and whether ever changing political, social and economic dynamics have brought India closer to true democratic model. India retained a deep commitment to principles of parliamentary g overnment during the three decades after independence. Indian leaders described their approach planning nder a democratic pattern of socialism as a new model for Asian and African development. India’s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru who set the direction of India’s development during the first fifteen years of freedom, pointed to his country as an area of agreement between opposing ideologies of capitalism on the hand and the communism on the other. Under his leadership, the commitment to democratic social transformation was an integral part of India’s development strategy. Nehru also tried to incorporate Gandhian ideals of social reforms in his development programs.Nehru spoke of this mode of development as a third way which takes best from all existing systems—the Russian, the American, and sought to create something suited to one’s own history and philosophy. In the nascent stage of Independence, the Nehruvian socialist model of developmen t seemed to have worked well within the social and economic framework of India. But Nehru too had to face many challenges in the implementation of his development model. Nehru’s attempt to bring serious bourgeois land reforms was thwarted through a combination of feudal resistance, judicial conservatism, and connivance of state Congress leaderships.Although Congress was content to accept the continuance of semi-feudal rural power, it adopted massive plans for capitalist movement. Consistent with this general objective, the ruling elite adopted a plan for heavy industrialization and institutional control of capital goods industries through the state sector, a largely untried experiment at the time in the underdeveloped countries. Indira Gandhi who became Prime Minister after Nehru’s demise gave a new populist dimension to Indian politics.The shift of the Congress to populist politics quickly set up a new structure of political communication in which Indira could directl y appeal to electorates. While populist endeavors like Garibi Hatao (remove poverty) and nationalization of banks brought her good name, she has often been criticized for changing the Congress into a highly centralized and undemocratic party organization, from the earlier federal, democratic, and ideological formation that Nehru had led. Indira’s regime, in my opinion, was the beginning of the stage when India started to show its meaningful presence internationally.Creation of Bangladesh was the beginning of the India’s assertiveness at international level. Nuclear test conducted in 1974 was the extension of this assertiveness. Ironically Indira’s regime will also go down in history for bringing disrepute to democracy by imposing emergency in the most undemocratic manner. Perhaps it was the first blow to the essence of democratic model that India followed since independence. The manner in which rights and liberties, the two important tenets of democracy, were su spended during emergency reminds us how an authoritarian regime can play havoc in people’s minds.The emergency perhaps was the turning point in the Indian democratic history because it paved the way for major political and social shift. It was perhaps the trigger that led to the end of absolute majority era and ignited the undercurrent of regional politics played largely around caste and religious lines. Easwaran Sridharan and M. V. Rajeev Gowda however believe that the end of Congress’s dominance and fragmentation of the party system have stopped short of undermining the basic power-sharing characteristics of the system and have indeed contributed to democratic consolidation.While the seeds for the decline of one-power dominance were sown during Indira’s regime it became more apparent during Rajiv Gandhi’s tenure as the Prime Minister of India. Some scholars however believe that the decline of one-party dominance and the emergence of a large number of sm aller or regional parties which ensure that state-level elections are vigorously contested have had positive effects on competition. These developments represent political empowerment of historically marginalized groups and reflect favorably on the vibrancy of political entrepreneurship.I feel that mushrooming of small regional parties can also be attributed to effect of anti-defection law enacted during Rajiv’s regime. Emergence of regional parties has also led to political instability due to opportunist attitude shown by these parties time and again. Rajiv attempted to bring party reforms and rebuild Congress as an organized party. He also played a vital role in tackling Punjab problem that assumed alarming proportion during Indira’s regime. Rajiv can also be credited for bringing constitutional status to Panchayati Raj, one of most important tenets of Indian democracy.During Rajiv’s regime too the essence of democracy looked dismantled characterized by high-s cale violence against the Sikh community in the aftermath of Indira’s assassination. Coalition politics gained momentum after Rajiv’s assassination in 1991. Caste and religion became the driver and determinants of Indian politics thereafter. Anti-reservation protest in the aftermath of the implementation of Mandal Commission is the stark reminder of the despair that results when the advocates for meritocracy lose their battle against the saviors of petty caste politics.Hindu nationalist forces too jumped the bandwagon soon and tried to establish their presence in the Indian political arena through much talked about Ram Janmabhumi agenda. We are also witnessing a paradigm shift in the redistributive politics wherein leftist forces are happy with a kind of statism that protects the state sector even if it means stifling the rest of economy. On the other hand the proponents of Mandal fear that rolling back the state on economic reform issues at the moment when Backward Ca stes (BCs) are getting access to its resources would be exercise in bad faith.Of late, globalization and economic reforms have given a new dimension to Indian politics, and for that matter to Indian democracy. Development has become the main political agenda pushing caste and religion gimmicks on the backburner. Political results in two successive elections in Bihar mark the paradigm shift in people’s voting pattern. It shows how voters are trumping the populist agenda in favor of developmental agenda. It augurs well for Indian democracy. The ensuing paragraphs discuss at length achievements, challenges and issues that India faces as democratic nation.Despite the considerable success of the Indian state in holding free and fair elections, sustaining a free press, and dramatically expanding the franschise, the abuse of coercive state power remains one of the major problems. Frequently such power is used arbitrarily against the poor, minorities, and those who dare to challenge the state’s writ. Furthermore, police abuses are more pronounced in poorer states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, where standards of accountability are sorely lacking. The evidence from such states of rampant deaths in police custody underscores the gravity of this ill.India as a democratic nation has underachieved when it comes to protecting human rights. Armed Forces Special Powers Act 1990 was aimed at containing ethno-religious insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir. It allows armed forces to conduct counter-insurgency operations. Under the garb of this act, security forces often resort to extrajudicial killings. The 2002 Prevention of Terrorism Activities Act (POTA), that came into existence in the aftermath of a series of terror acts, was sometimes used against political opponents and also infringed upon the individual rights and civil liberties of Indian citizen.The secular structure of Indian democracy also looked threatened on many occasions. The project of secularism has inc reasingly been under threat as communal ideology and political forces have come to enjoy greater purchase in society and the polity. The demolition of Babri Masjid engineered by Hindu nationalist forces like Bajrang Dal, RSS, and VHP, doesn’t augur well for the secular structure of the country.The Hindu nationalists’ hostility to secularism became evident in a number of different arenas, ranging from a systematic attempt to alter history and socio-science science textbooks to party leaders’ willingness to countenance widespread state-sanctioned violence against Muslims, especially during bloody disturbances that rocked the western state of Gujrat. On the positive side, the growth of a plethora of nongovernmental organizations (NGO) focused on development, along with the growing participation of hitherto quiescent groups, are gradually resulting in a political system that is more accountable to the citizenry.The roles NGOs are playing have the potential to reshap e the much needed developmental path. In times to come, NGOs will play much meaningful role by representing face of common people largely ignored by political entities. However politicization and financial irregularities rampant at these rapidly multiplying NGOs could act as a deterrent to the primary objectives that these nonprofits stand for. At Independence, the imperative for welfare mechanism was obvious due to widespread poverty and lack of food security, specially in the rural areas.Even after sixty five years of Independence, a large percentage of Indian population officially are still subsisting below poverty line and incidents of acute food insecurity continue to occur. Since 1985 Kalahandi has been more or less uninterruptedly suffering from food crisis of alarming dimensions and proportions, officially and disarmingly described as drought, but unofficially, by critics, as famine. The politics of nomenclature apart, Kalahandi has become a metaphor for hunger in several ot her districts in the more backward hill areas of south-western Orissa.The most ugly part of the Kalahandi starvation issue was highlighted by the Baidyanath Mishra Commission Report that attributed starvation deaths in the region to a set of issues including corruption, fraud, misuse, wastefulness, and mismanagement of development. Enhancing food security at the household level is an issue of great importance for developing country like India where millions of poor suffer from lack of purchasing power and malnutrition. Right to food is a part of an overall goal of achieving the right to development.Attainment of self-sufficiency of foodgrains at the national level is one of the big achievements in post-independence period. After remaining a food deficit country for about two decades after independence, India has not only become self-sufficient in foodgrains but now has a surplus of foodgrains. Despite many poverty alleviation programs initiated since the time of Indira Gandhi, pover ty still remains one of the concerns and state and central governments need to look into it. Employment guarantee schemes like NREGA bring some hope even though effective implementation remains largely unaddressed.India has made significant progress in fostering high levels of economic and industrial development. But when it comes to ethnic conflict in India, four sets of causal conditions have usually combined in different ways in different areas to produce conflict and violence. First is the fear of assimilation or cultural dilution and unfulfilled national aspiration. Second is the process of modernization by inducing large-scale migrations and by raising standards of literacy and aspirations.This process of modernization has not only forced ethnic groups to live closely together and to compete for rewards and resources, but has also sharpened their sociopolitical awareness and increased their capacity to mobilize for collective action. The third reason is unequal development, po verty, exploitation, lack of opportunity, and threats to existing group privileges. Finally, political factors such as endemic bad governance, the growth of anti-secular forces, institutional decay, and vote-bank politics have also contributed to large scale ethnic conflicts.The role of mass media has become more important in today’s context. Mass media has played a positive role in highlighting issues of public concern such as corruption, electoral malpractices, and economic instability. Anti-corruption movement launched by social crusader Anna Hazare could become successful due to large scale involvement of mass media. On the flipside politicization and commercialization of mediums of mass media don’t paint rosy picture for the fourth pillar of Indian democracy. Another area where we need to work is the social security for unorganized workers.The social security problems for unorganized workers in India can be divided into two sets of problems. The first is the capab ility deprivation in terms of inadequate employment, low earnings, poor health, and educational status which are related to general deprivation of poorer sections of the population. The second is the adversity in the sense of absence of adequate fall back mechanisms to meet contingencies such as ill health, accident, death, and old age. Central and state governments also need to focus on social sector by ensuring larger allocation for such expenditure.On human development index India is not comfortably placed either. Infant mortality rate remains one of the major issues. The incidence of child labor is among the highest in the world. Women have significantly higher morbidity and mortality rates than men. Though we have made significant inroads in achieving greater literacy, the numbers don’t sound adequate. Human development conditions are particularly egregious in four northern states, Bihar, Rajasthan, UP, and Madhya Pradesh. It becomes apparent that our democratic aspirati ons are only partly realized.Large scale corruption, communalism, electoral malpractices, perverted forms of Muslim and Hindu radicalism, sponsored terrorism, regional separatist insurgencies, corporate-political nexus, apart from many other things, have been obstructing the India’s journey along the path of democracy. Through a series of economic reforms India has made its presence at international stage, but marginalized sections of Indian society are yet to reap substantial benefits from it. Strong political will is needed to put us in the forefront of successful democratic nations.We also need to get rid of the corrupt hierarchy of bureaucratic structure because it acts as a deterrent to the implementation of welfare programs. As the citizen of a democratic nation what hurts me most is the deep rooted corruption, not only because it has become an exercise of power and impunity for many, but also because it has made its locus in the minds of people where it has become stan dardized. We spent enough time passing the bucks as to which apparatus/ apparatuses of our social, economic and political systems has/have failed us as the democratic nation.It is not the time to retrospect what we achieved as a democratic nation in the long journey so far, rather it is introspection time for each actor of democracy including politicians, bureaucrats, and off course the most powerful people. This introspection will surely bring the urgency among actors to realize the accountability they owe to the democratic edifice of India that is standing tall after having weathered challenging times since independence. Spread of education and emergence of political, social, and economic consciousness among citizens give me hope that India will slowly inch closer to aligning herself ith the essence of true democratic values and ideals. I will choose to finish this manuscript on a positive note by going back to the famous quote of Harry Emerson Fosdick †¦ â€Å"Democracy is based upon the conviction that there are extraordinary possibilities in ordinary people. † Bibliography 1. Mehta, P. B. , The Burden of Democracy . Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2003 2. Frankrel, F. R. , India's political economy, 1947-2004:  The Gradual Revolution. London: Oxford University Press, 2005 3. ibid 4. Karanjia, R. K. , Mind of Mr. Nehru,London: Allen & Unwin, 1961 5.Kaviraj, Sudipta, â€Å"A critique of the Passive Revolution,† Economics and Political Weekly 23 (Nov 1988): 2433 6. Chandra, Bipin, Mukherjee, Aditya, Mukherjee, Mridula. India after Independence, Penguin Books, New Delhi, 1999 7. Ganguly, Sumit, Diamond, Larry and Plattner, Marc F. , The State of India’s Democracy , Oxford University Press, 2009 8. Yadav, Yogendra, â€Å"Electoral Politics in the Time of Change: India’s Third Electoral System, 1998-99,† Economics and Political Weekly, August 21-28, 1999 9. Mehta, P. B. , The Burden of Democracy , Penguin Books, New Delhi, 20 03 10.Genteman, Amelia, Killings in Delhi Slum Expose: Unequal Justice for India’s Poor,† International Herald Tribune, January 6, 2007 11. See the National Human Rights Commission Report for 2004-2005, available at www. nhrc. nic. in 12. Jayal, NirajaGopal, ed. , Democracy in India Oxford University Press, New Delhi 13 Ganguly, Sumit â€Å"The Crisis of Indian Secularism,† Journal of Democracy 14, October 2003 14. see Ganguly, Diamond, Plattner 15. see Jayal 16. see Jayal 17. see Jayal 18. Dev, S. Mahendra, Inclusive Growth in India: Agriculture, Poverty, and Developoment Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2011 19. ee Ganguly, Diamond, Plattner 20. See Dev 21. Atul Kohli, ed. , â€Å"The Success of India’s Democracy,† Cambridge University Press, New Delhi, 2011 ——————————————– [ 1 ]. P. B. Mehta, The Burden of Democracy (Penguin Books, New Delh i, 2003), 106-107 [ 2 ]. F. R. Frankel, India's political economy, 1947-2004:  The Gradual Revolution (London: Oxford University Press, 2005), 4 [ 3 ]. F. R. Frankel, India's political economy, 1947-2004:  The Gradual Revolution (London: Oxford University Press, 2005), 25 [ 4 ]. R. K. Karanjia, Mind of Mr. Nehru (London: Allen & Unwin, 1961), 100-101 [ 5 ]. Sudipta kaviraj. A critique of the Passive Revolution,† Economics and Political Weekly 23 (Nov 1988): 2433 [ 6 ]. Bipan Chandra, Aditya Mukherjee, Mridula Mukherjee. India after Independence (Penguin Books, New Delhi, 1999), Chapters 11, 13 [ 7 ]. Sumit Ganguly, Larry Diamond, and Marc F. Plattner, The State of India’s Democracy (Oxford University Press, 2009), xviii-xix [ 8 ]. Yogendra yadav, â€Å"Electoral Politics in the Time of Change: India’s Third Electoral System, 1998-99,† Economics and Political Weekly (August 21-28, 1999): 2393-99 [ 9 ]. P. B. Mehta, The Burden of Democracy (Penguin Books , New Delhi, 2003), 168-169 [ 10 ].Amelia Genteman, Killings in Delhi Slum Expose: Unequal Justice for India’s Poor,† International Herald Tribune (January 6, 2007) [ 11 ]. See the National Human Rights Commission Report for 2004-2005, available at www. nhrc. nic. in [ 12 ]. NirajaGopal Jayal, ed. , Democracy in India (Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 170 [ 13 ]. Sumit Ganguly, â€Å"The Crisis of Indian Secularism,† Journal of Democracy 14 (October 2003): 11-25 [ 14 ]. Sumit Ganguly, Larry Diamond, and Marc F. Plattner, The State of India’s Democracy (Oxford University Press, 2009), xxi-xxii [ 15 ]. Jayal, 198 [ 16 ]. Jayal, 199 [ 17 ].NirajaGopal Jayal, ed. , Democracy in India (Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 200 [ 18 ]. S. Mahendra Dev, Inclusive Growth in India: Agriculture, Poverty, and Developoment (Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 201), 101-103 [ 19 ]. Sumit Ganguly, Larry Diamond, and Marc F. Plattner, The State of India’s Democra cy (Oxford University Press, 2009), 49 [ 20 ]. S. Mahendra Dev, Inclusive Growth in India: Agriculture, Poverty, and Developoment (Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2011), 201-202 [ 21 ]. Atul Kohli, ed. , â€Å"The Success of India’s Democracy (Cambridge University Press, New Delhi, 2011), 211

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Around the late 1950s, open-minded Californian surfers began to realize that these-scooter-minus-the-handlebar contraptions†¦could be used as a kind of alternative to surfing†¦ (Books and Phillips, p.11)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It was by the year of 1950 that the surfing fad became very popular. It was only then that people recognized the fact that skateboarding could be almost similar to riding a wave or surfing and this particular association with surfing which gave skateboarding, a course which would affect everything regarding the sport which was just about to come. This includes a series of maneuvers, style terrain, as well as stance. It was basically at some point in this time that changes were done to the apparatus in order to make them easier to use or handle. By the year of 1959 the very 1st Roller Derby Skateboard was put up in stores. Basically, it was the surfers who first thought of the idea that surfing could be done on streets (Cave, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As was already mentioned, the 1st skateboard was manufactured by the year of 1950 and it happened during the surfing or riding in wave was in vogue in California. The very first skateboards were made at home and built on even wooden boards fastened to roller skate trucks and wheels, skateboarding were initially named â€Å"sidewalk surfing† and the very first skaters imitated some methods and moves from surfers. It is even argued if skateboards really developed from â€Å"crate scooters†, which in turn came before skateboards did and they were basically the same saved that they have a crate made of wood fastened to the front, which made up elementary handlebars (Cave, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The entrance of the year 1960 paved way to skateboarding going on mainstream. There are also those surfing companies like Hobie and Makaha who began manufacturing skateboards which looks a lot like minute surfboards and accumulating groups to endorse their manufactured goods. The fame of skateboarding at this point in time generated a national magazine which is called a â€Å"Skateboarder Magazine and the 1965 international championships were publicized on national televisions, the development of skateboarding during this times could also be observed in Makaha’s sales records which stated $4, 000, 000 worth of skateboard were sold from the year of 1963 up to 1965. It was also in the year of 1963 that skateboard was at the highest peak of its fame and thus Makaha, among other companies commenced in giving off tournaments on skateboarding. During this year skateboarding are usually done, downhill, salom or freestyle and skateboarders such as Torger Johnson, Woody Woodward and Dany Berer became famous on the sport however, one should take note of the fact that skateboarding is very different from what it is today and thus one should not expect them to be doing things skaters of today’s times are doing. During those times â€Å"freestyle† their favorite style in skateboarding seems as though they are doing some ballet or they are ice skating, not exactly the same as it looks like today. However, by the year of 1966 sales had not been as good as before and it plunged down considerably. It was also about this time when Skateboarder Magazine had ended their publications, and hence skateboarding’s fame plunged down and continued to remain low until the coming of the year, 1970 (OldSchoolSkateboarding, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The early 1960s is the time when companies like Makaha and Hobie’s started to mass produce the very first and genuine surfing enthused skateboards. A number of the first advocates of surf-style skateboarding are Bill and Mark Richards, Danu Bearer, and so on. Skateboarding became very trendy in an instant and manufacturing companies have had to work hard in order to sustain the demands of the customers. More than 50, 000, 000 skateboards were bought within the span of three years. The very first contests on skateboarding took place on Hermosa Beach, California in the year of 1i963. It was in 1965 that a swing supposedly safety specialists asserted that skateboarding is not safe, forcing the stores to stop selling skateboards, and parents to stop buying them. The skateboarding trend died immediately in the same way it had been an instant fad before (OldSchoolSkateboarding, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   At the early years of 1970, Frank Nasworthy began to make skateboard wheels from polyurethane. Nasworthy’s invention looks closer to what skateboarders use nowadays.   The development in footing and execution was so great that the reputation of skateboarding began to increase quickly once more. Companies began to spend more in product advancement. A large number of companies began to produce trucks principally intended for skateboarding. As the gear develops and began to be more maneuverable or easier to handle, the decks began to get broader which provides the skateboarders even more room to maneuver Nasworthy’s company was called Cadillac wheels and his inventions caught the interest of surfers among other people which is another development on skateboarding.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Skateboards made up by polypropylene were called banana board; these boards are thin, supple, with beams on the underside for structural foundation and they are also very famous until the mid-70s. These skateboards are available in many colors; however yellow is the most famous of them all, hence the term banana boards.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the year of 1975, skateboarding unexpectedly received an evolutionary improvement and it is almost similar to what skateboards and skateboarders do and look like nowadays. In Del Mar wherein a salom and freestyle competition was held , the Zephyr team amazed the world to the things skaters and their skateboards could do and it was the start of whence the sport was treated seriously and not just as a mere past time. Tony Alva, Jay Adams, and Tony Peralta were the three most well-known and celebrated skateboarders at that time and all of them are members of the Zephyr.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   By the year of 1978 skateboarder, Alan â€Å"Ollie† Gelfand made a noteworthy invention which gave skateboarding another boost. The Ollie is a technique wherein one would slam one’s back foot on the tail of the skateboard and then the skater would be seen boarding the air.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Producers began to experimenting with more interesting combinations such as fiberglass and aluminum; however, the typical skateboards were structured with maple plywood. The skateboarders made use of the better handling of their boards and they commenced on creating and discovering new tricks with their skateboards. Skateboarders, especially the Z-boys, commenced in skating the vertical walls of swimming pools and this began the vertical trend in the said sport. With amplified improved control vertical skaters could skate faster and execute more risky tricks like slash grinds and the like. This founded liability apprehensions and intensified insurance charges to skatepark owners. During this period, the â€Å"freestyle† movement in skateboarding started it could be distinguished by the growth of a broad variety of flat-ground tricks.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Skateparks progressively had to debate against high-liability expenses which led to many parks closing down. Vertical skaters thus, began to make their own access ramps and freestylers are no longer in need for skate parks. Therefore, by early 1980s skateboardings popularity diminished once more (YourLeisurelyTime, 2006).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It was by the year of 1980s that the VCR suddenly materialized into the picture and they paved way to kids all over the world who wants to skate. Stacey Peralta along with George Powell made a team of gifted skateboarders and called them the Bones Brigade, it was also Stacey who made skateboarding videos which he called â€Å"The Bones Brigade Videos†. Their team includes Steve Caballero, Tony Hawk, along with other famous skaters, most of which one could see in â€Å"Freestyle† (a playstation game), and it was by this time that skaters began to be famous and made their own clothing styles which others tries to imitate even up to this point in time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The 3rd generation of skateboards which is by the early 1980s up to early 1990s was stimulated by skateboard manufacturers which were managed by skateboarders. The main concentration was originally on vertical ramps skateboarding. The creation of the no-hands aerial by Allan Gelfand in the year of 1976 made it feasible for skateboarders to execute airs off of vert ramps. Whereas this wave of skateboarding was generated by commercialized vertical ramps skating, a great number of individuals who skateboarded during these times do not use or ride vertical ramps. Since majority of this individuals do not have the financial means to construct vertical ramps or they do not have access towards the ramps in the vicinity, street skating obtained a great deal of popularity. Freestyle skating continued to be popular all throughout this time with founders like Rodney Mullen formulating the fundamentals of contemporary street skating. The effects thiese freestylers had on street skating became pretty much obvious by the middle of 1980s. However, skateboarding progressed rapidly in the late 80s to adapt with the street skaters. Because only a small number of skate parks are accessible to skaters during this period, street skating urged skaters to search for shopping centers as well as public and private property they could call their place on which they could skate. The public resistances as well as dangers of bringing matters to court compelled businesses and property holders alike, to prohibit skating on their properties. By the year of 1992 just a small number of skateboarders continued to be a specialized adaptation of street skating, merged with the deterioration of vertical skating, generated a sport that is lacking of the mainstream allure to draw new skateboarders (DiMartino, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The 4th as well as the present generation of skateboards is dominated mainly of street skating. Typical boards are approximately 71/4 up to 8† wide and 30-32† long. .Tthe wheels are composed of exceptionally hard polyurethane, durometer, also, very high durometers provides the advantage of lessened hindrance on hard areas which produces in an general a speedier ride. The sizes of the wheels are comparatively minute so that the boards are does not weigh much in comparison to the wheels of the 80s. Most decks are still made up from Canadian Maple, with 7 plys being the manufacturing average for depth and sturdiness. Skateboards designs have been altered noticeably since the year of 1970. However it is still the same since the middle years of the 90s. The modern form of the skateboard is obtained from the freestyle boards of the 1980s with a mostly symmetrical figure and moderately slim width. It was by the year of 1990s that ramps or vertical skateboarding popularity started to dwindle. However, it was also in the 1990s when Mike Vallely and Natas Kaupas came into the picture and started boosting street skateboarding and it was basically this reason why they are highly responsible for skateboarding rising in fame again.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Basically, skateboarding is very similar to surfing from which it is known to have originated. The vertical ramps used by skateboarders could be seen to be almost the same as the vertical waves surfers have had to ride when they are doing the sport. Ollie, as well as the other techniques is also similar in skateboarding and surfing. The people who find fascination in the two sports were all diverse and drawn up to the said sports because of sheer exhilaration and feeling of adventure. Both sports are very risky or dangerous and it is primarily the reason why there are those devil may care individuals who finds themselves irresistibly drawn to the sport.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The present sequence of skateboarding as well as surfing has been stimulated by many things as well as new companies, more wide-ranging and tricky terrains, a daredevil attitude, and most significantly by a new generation of youngsters who have found out the excitement of feeling of rolling along boards, may it be surfing boards or skateboards. A number of people who apply heavy pressure on the said sports are former pros who have started their own companies. The Ollie has come about into its own as the basis for eighty percent of street tricks and also about sixty percent of vertical tricks, which as had mentioned earlier is almost the same to that of surfers riding vertical waves, on which their main concentrations were on more technical and superior tricks. Also, â€Å"improvement in skateboarding like all sports takes countless hours of physical practice† (Werner and Badillo, p 15).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Skateboarding regained more popularity in 1995, mainly because of the exposure it has had from ESPN’s 1st Extreme Games in Rhode Island which served to bring skateboarding, which like surfing is categorized as a rebel and dangerous sport, maybe because of the perils and hazards and intermittent illegality of the enterprise,   closer to the majority of people. In the year of 1996, the extreme Games took place, once more on Rhode Island, once again rendering the sport into another exposure to millions of individuals (DiMartino, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The influence of media exposure towards the sport has made it a spectator sport instead of the underground sport it had been for the last decades. It has caused an invasion of companies which provided the sports a great sum of money for advertising, which had until that time disregarded skateboarding, as a means for promotional reasons. Advertisers and promoters have seen that skateboarding developed into a major sport on which they could have access to their preferred demographics, young males. Skateboarders and surfers alike have been in constant existence in campaigns for manufactured goods starting from soft drinks up to other kind of junk foods, sweet delicacies and even phone corporations. Therefore, majority of the phenomenon in skateboarding and surfing in present time came not from the skateboarders or surfers themselves; rather they came from company’s supports as well as from the media exposures ([emailprotected], 2007). The main concentration of the skateboarding continues to be on street skating, as is evident allover the editorials and publicity sides of the chief skateboarding magazines, wherein street skating pictures still dominates majority of the pages. On the other hand, vertical skating is about to return in the picture, owing in some ways to the great number of new skate parks being constructed all over the place. The said skate parks have also amplified the skating areas in numerous settlements. These numerous and assorted ramps, pipes as well as bowls offered at the said parks have paved way to a modification in gears. These technological alterations put on the skateboard products have better or enhanced skateboarding progressively in the course of the last two decades, and whereas in the early 90’s small boards and tiny wheels reigned all over the place, in today’s time there is a broad variety of skateboards and wheels which could be seen in use by many skateboarders. Wheel diameters are bigger, deck breadth continually develops, and long boards are advancing in fame particularly in beach communities (in the same manner that surfing is very popular in surfing communities) and amongst those that just desires to make use of their boards as a vehicle or some kind of a means for transport. Downhill skateboarding is also being revived for the past few years partly because of the visibility of the street sled (YourLeisurelyTime, 2006).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Among the leading fads at work is amongst soft goods. In the past few years, clothing trends have steadily mirrored the alterations wrought by those who people who skates, (Avril Lavigne for one used to wear what other labels as punk or skaters apparels.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Today a pro can make anywhere from $1000 to $10,000 a month,† stated Danielle Bostick of World Cup Skateboarding and the X Games. These salaries are depends mainly on winnings of the professional skater. This is also one of the pulls why skating had been such a fad even up to this point in time (surfers are also drawn by the amount of earnings one could obtain depending on the wins he would bring his team). Most skateboarders who are sponsored by companies also earns good money provided that they meet up with these companies expectations and they carry the name of the company as some kind of an advertisement. This is a substantial transformation from the past when professional skaters need to work in other jobs in order to earn their money for skating (The Concrete Wave, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Skateboarding could be enjoyed by anyone (even by people two years of age) however the bulk of professional skaters vary from early teenagers up to individuals who are in their twenties. Majority of skaters do not train in any customary meaning one could denote from the word, in fact they do not even worry about their diets. Skaters like surfers simply do what they like to do best, skating. In fact, skateboarding is a lot of fun and it is largely the reason why we often see people of different nationalities, ages, or groups loitering around on their skateboards. Basically, the same thing could be said with surfers. Try going on a beach and there you could also see different people of all age surfing with the waves. Both sports are enjoyable and both are not picky when it comes to performing them. Works Cited Books, Carlton, and Skin Phillips. Skateboard Ramp: History. Carlton Books; 1 edition, 2002. Brooke, Michael. The Concrete Wave: The History of Skateboarding Warwick House Publishing, 1999. Cave, Steve. â€Å"A Brief History of Skateboarding.† 2007. OldSchoolSkateBoarding, â€Å"Interview with Makaha Skateboards founder Larry Stevenson† 2007. Werner, Doug, and Steve Badillo. Skateboarding New Levels: Tips and Tricks for Serious Riders Tracks Publishing 2002.   YourLeisureTime, â€Å"Skateboards: Skateboarding, Skate Parks.† 2006.

Indirect Tension Test Analysis

Indirect Tension Test Analysis IDT The indirect tension test involves applying compressive loads on cylindrical specimen. This would develop uniform tensile stress perpendicular to direction of applied load as shows in figure1. Resulted horizontal and vertical tensile deformation is measured using linear variable displacement transducers(LVDTS). The specimen is loaded until splitting along axis of applied load as shows in figure 2 [1].   Different type of loading mode, temperature and device setup modification were used to measure different material properties. IDT test have many advantages such as simplicity in accompanying test, and preparation samples. Specimens failure is started in uniform tensile stress, and it is not affected by surface condition of specimen make it popular test in pavement .   [2] AC mixture properties obtained by load, displacement time plots at different loading mode and temperature as shows in figures 2.   Initially, IDT was used to measure strength of specimen. It was defined as the maximum load on specimen until failure. It is loaded with constant deformation rate at specified temperature until failure. The strength was obtained by dividing peak load of specimen, on it diameter and thickness using u equation 1.The detailed procedure is described in [4], where it was recommended to test material with 50mm/min loading rate , at 77 °F Equation 1 Where: St = tensile strength, kPa (psi)P = maximum load, N (lbf)t = specimen height immediately before tensile test, mm(in.), D = specimen diameter, mm (in.) Indirect Tensile Creep Tests In addition, ITD is used to conduct creep compliance test on mixture.   These values was addressed by Superpave specification to prevent thermal cracking, also, it is one of primary inputs in ASSHTO ME design method. Creep compliance represent ratio between time-dependent (creep) strain to applied stress as function of time. It is reflected the stiffness and time-dependence of material .[2].. In this test, the specimen is loaded with constant static load, that make Maximum measured horizontal strain below 500-10-6 mm. Three measurement is taken at three different temperature, selected based in PG grading of binder. The creep compliance calculated as function of time   using equationS 2,3. The detailed procedure is described in [5]. Equation 2 Equation 3 Where: D(t) = creep compliance at time t (kPa) GL = gauge length in meters (0.038 meters for 150 mm diameter specimens) Davg = average diameter of all specimens [typically 3] (nearest 0.001 meter) bavg = average thickness of all specimens [typically 3] (nearest 0.001 meter) Pavg = average creep load (kN) ΔXtm,t = trimmed mean of the normalized, horizontal deformations (nearest 0.001meter) of all specimen faces [typically 6] at time t (X/Y)absolute value of the ratio of the normalized, trimmed mean of the horizontal Also, it was used to determine resilient modulus of pavement mixture. Resilient modulus is stiffness measurement, reflecting material behavior within undamaged loading mode. It was defined as ratio between applied stress to recoverable strain.   Within IDT device a cyclic load is applied to give specimen enough time to recoverable it is strain. Each cycle included applying compressive load, followed by rest period. Horizontal and vertical recoverable deformation is recorded within test as shows in figure 3. It is used to calculate Passions ratios, to obtain the resilient modulus using equation 2 and 3. Two different values of resilient modulus could be obtained, based on measured deformation. Instantaneous resilient modulus depends on instantaneous recoverable deformation during unloading of each cycle.   Total resilient modulus is obtained using total recoverable deformation including both instantaneous and time-dependent recoverable deformation. Detailed test procedure is descr ibed in[6]. Three specimens with (4 or 6) in diameter, (1.5 or 2) height are tested at (77 ±2F). Initially, 100 loading cycles are applied, to get five stable cycle with less than 1 % change on resilient modulus. Loading levels are selected as   ( 10 20 ) percentage of one specimen. Instantaneous deformation is represented as difference between peak and curve deformation. Total deformation was determined as difference between peak and end of one loaded- unloaded cycle as shows in figure 3. Figure 3[6] load, displacement time plots for IDT test output Equation 2 Equation 3 Where : µ = Poissons ratio,ÃŽ ´v = the recoverable vertical, mm (in.)ÃŽ ´h = the recoverable horizontal   deformation, mm (in.) MR = resilient modulus of elasticity, MPa (psi),ÃŽ ´h = recoverable horizontal deformation, mm (in.), I1,I2,I3,I4: Constant values depends on   gauge length as a fraction of diameter specimen µ = instantaneous or total Poissons ratio,t = thickness of specimen, mm (in.),Pcyclic = Pmax Pcontact = cyclic load applied to specimen, N(lb),Pmax = maximum applied load, N (lb) andPcontact = contact load, N (lb) Indirect Tensile Fatigue Tests IThe specimen tested for fatigue under repeated load mode. The fatigue life was represented by number of cycle until failure during the test.Different fatigue criteria were developed within on IDT test. Number of cycles to complete failure (Nf); or 50 %   reduction in resilient modulus of its initial value was used [7].[8] defined it as   when the   permeant horizontal deformation ranges between 0.25-0.38 in. However   [3]   found dramatically increasing in total horizontal deformation was happened after a value of 0.1 in and select as failure criteria. [9] define it as the point when horizontal deformation increase in faster rate more than constant rate. [10]   select   a value of   9 mm   of total vertical deformation as failure criteria.[11], introduced theoretical criteria based on energy ratio for both control stress and strain mode of loading. [2] introduced logit model used fracture energy as indicator for fatigue based on fatigue cracking.[12]   used visco elastic continuum damage (VECD) model   to predict fatigue life. A single-characteristic curve of an asphalt mixture and is independent of loading types (C1-S1 curve) model was used. A 50 % reduction in normalized pseudostiffness (C1) was selected as failure criteria.   [13] introduced new approach based on crack development. Two digital cameras were used to record development of cracks every minute. The failure criteria was selected as number loading cycle when rapid crack beginning. Two asphalt mixture, dense graded and stone mastic were tested based on AASHTP TP9-96. Control-stress mode of loading was used at 20 C with 10HZ frequency. Two digital cameras were used to record development of cracks every minute, as shows in the figure 3. Scion Image software was used to analysis results images. Both length and width of cracks was recorded. The failure criteria was selected as number loading cycle when rapid crack beginning. Figure 4[13] overlay tester   (OT) The overlay test was introduced by [14] to induced resulted displacement   from temperature change at layers below the overlay. The original OT was upgraded to test HMA laboratory mixes and field cores. The specimen size was modified to be obtained from superpave gyratory compactor samples (figure 6) and fully computer controlled system is used to control the test   [15] . The test setup shows in figure 7 two steel blocks, one free to slides horizontally, while the other is fixed. The sliding process reflects the opening and closing of cracks or joint in pavement thus, will represent the two-stage fatigue process in pavement. The crack initiation, includes growing of micro-cracks and the crack propagation, represented by macro cracks on surface layer .[16]. Figure 5 Overlat test setup,[15] Figure 6 OT Sample preparation[15] The Trimmed specimen is glued with epoxy between two blocks. The sliding is applied cyclic triangular waveform direct tension on the specimen. It is controlled with maximum displacement opening. The test could   be conducted with loading rate ranges (1-600) second/cycle, controlled opening displacement (0-0.08) and temperature between (32-77 F) [17].However, Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) published standardized test procedure designation (Tex-248-F. It was specified that the specimen is loaded   with 10 second cyclic controlled with   0.025 maximum displacement at 77+1F temperature.[18] Figure 7:overlay setup-Tex-248-F test [19] The crack resistance is represented based on number of cycle correspond to 93% in   maximum applied load in first cycle.   Ã‚   (Hu et al. 2008; Sheng and Ping 2016). However, [22] compare between different methods to analysis the data. The area under- the load-cycle response curve was used; the result shows no improvement in variability. In addition, the rate of load decrease was studied, it was unsatisfactory.   different load reduction percentage was tested as alternative for 93%. The 85% load reduction seem to be good. The test is recommend for performance measures for reflective cracks. [15] test field cores from different highways in taxas state. They suggest 300 cycle @93 % load reduction was selected as pass /failure criteria and 750 cycle was For the rich bottom layer. Also, New Jersey department of transportation (NJDOT) adopted OT test as performance measure for different mixes . The test conduct 10 second cyclic load controlled with   0.025 maximum displacement at   either 59 or 77 F. The failure criteria of specimen selected to be 93 % or until minimum 1200. The detailed procedure published in designation NJDOT B-10[23].   The design Binder-Rich Intermediate Course(BRIC) require minimum of a 700 cycle at 77F as pass criteria. For high rap mixes it is require minimum 150,175 For PG64-22,PG76-22 respectively for surface course while intermediate course required minimum 100,125 cycle for PG64-22,PG76-22 respectively[24].